Die Hypothese des Pluralismus

Michael Grant. The Rise of the Greeks. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1987: 35-36; George Forrest. "Greece: The History of the Archaic Period." In The Oxford History of the Classical World: Greece and the Hellenistic World, edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988: 25; Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Richard Crawley. In Library of the Future, 4th Edition, Ver. 5.0. Irvine, CA: World Library, Inc., 1996. CD-Rom; Herodotus. The History of Herodotus. In Library of the Future, 4th Edition, Ver. 5.0. Irvine, CA: World Library, Inc., 1996. CD-Rom.

Will Durant. The Story of Civilization: Part II--The Life of Greece. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1939: 40; Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War.

Michael Grant. The Rise of the Greeks: 41; Will Durant. The Story of Civilization: Part II--The Life of Greece: 109f; George Forrest. "Greece: The History of the Archaic Period": 16. The Encyclopaedia Britannica's authors on the subject demur and place the date of "'Thesean' synoecism, or centralization" at 900 b.c. (Emily D. Townsend Vermeule. Samuel E. Zemurray and Doris Zemurray Stone. "Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations, Athens." Encyclopaedia Britannica CD-97. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1997).

Oswyn Murray. "Life and Society in Classical Greece." In The Oxford History of the Classical World: Greece and the Hellenistic World: 218.

Herbert M. Lefcourt. Locus of Control: Current Trends in Theory and Research, 2d ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1982: 8-18; William R. Miller, Robert A. Rosellini and Martin E.P. Seligman. "Learned Helplessness and Depression." In Psychopathology: Experimental Models, edited by Jack D. Maser and Martin E.P. Seligman: 104-130. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1977; T.J. Shors, T.B. Seib, S. Levine and R.F. Thompson. "Inescapable Versus Escapable Shock Modulates Long-Term Potentiation in the Rat Hippocampus." Science, April 14, 1989: 224-226; Leonard A. Sagan. "Family Ties: The Real Reason People Are Living Longer." The Sciences, March/April, 1988: 20-29.

Rene A. Spitz. "Hospitalism: An Inquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood." The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. (New York: International Universities Press, 1945), I: 53-74; Rene A. Spitz, M.D. with Katherine M. Wolf, Ph.D.. "Anaclitic Depression: An Inquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood, II." The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, Vol. II. New York: International Universities Press, 1946: 331; Marilyn T. Erickson. Child Psychopathology: Behavior Disorders and Developmental Disabilities. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1982: 87; Leo Kanner, M.D. Child Psychiatry, 4th ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1972: 684-685; Raymond J. Corsini, ed., Bonnie D. Ozaki, assistant ed. Encyclopedia of Psychology. Vol. 1. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1984: 161; James S. House, Karl R. Landis and Debra Umberson. "Social Relationships and Health." Science, 29 July 1988: 540-545; Jay R. Kaplan, Stephen B. Manuck, Thomas B. Clarkson, Frances M. Lusso, David M. Taub and Eric W. Miller. "Social Stress and Atherosclerosis in Normocholesterolemic Monkeys." Science, 13 May 1983: 733-735; I.G. Sarason, B.R. Sarason and G.R. Pierce. "Social Support, Personality, and Health." In Topics In Health Psychology, edited by S. Maes, C.D. Spielberger, P.B. Defares and I.G. Sarason, 245-256. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988: 245-256; Sheldon Cohen, J. R. Kaplan, Joan E. Kunick, Steven E. Manuck, Bruce S. Rabin. "Chronic Social Stress Affiliation and Cellular Immune Response in Non-Human Primates." Psychological Science, September 1992: 301; Walter T. Martin. "Theories of Variation In the Suicide Rate." In Suicide, edited by Jack P. Gibbs. New York: Harper and Row: 1968: 76-80; David P. Phillips. "A Dip in Deaths Before Ceremonial Occasions: Some New Relationships Between Social Integration and Mortality." American Journal of Sociology, 84 (1979): 1150-1174; David P. Phillips and Judith Lu. "The Frequency of Suicides Around Major Public Holidays: Some Surprising Findings." Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, Spring, 1980: 41-50; Kenneth R. Pelletier. "Stress: Etiology, Assessment, and Management in Holistic Medicine." In Selye's Guide To Stress Research, Volume 3, edited by Hans Selye. New York: Scientific and Academic Editions, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983: 53.

Das trifft auch bei Eidechsen und Säugetieren zu, die Nervensysteme und die chemischen Botenstoffe besitzen, die bei unserer Neuroendokrinologie beteiligt sind. Bei Bakterien ist das anders. Sie besitzen die chemischen und genetischen Auslöser zum Abschalten und zur Aktivierung, aber ihre Nutzensortierer haben keine neurologische Komponente. Mehr darüber, wie diese Mechanismen bei Eidechsen und im Reptilienbereich des menschlichen Gehirns funktionieren, in: Neil Greenberg, Enrique Font, Robert C. Switzer III. "The Reptilian Striatum Revisited: Studies on Anolis Lizards." In The Forebrain of Reptiles: Current Concepts of Structure and Function, edited by Walter K Schwerdtfeger and Willhelmus J.A.J. Smeets. Basel: Karger, 1988: 162-177; Cliff H. Summers and Neil Greenberg. "Somatic Correlates of Adrenergic Activity during Aggression in the Lizards, Anolis carolinensis." Hormones and Behavior, 28, 1994: 29-40; Neil Greenberg. "Behavioral Endocrinology of Physiological Stress in a Lizard." The Journal of Experimental Zoology Supplement. 4, 1990: 170-173.

Jerome Kagan and Howard A. Moss. Birth to Maturity, a study in psychological development. New York, Wiley, 1962; A.A. Rosenberg, Jerome Kagan. "Physical and Physiological Correlates of Behavioral Inhibition." Developmental Psychobiology. December, 1989; Jerome Kagan. "Behavior, Biology, and the Meanings of Temperamental Constructs." Pediatrics. September, 1992; Jerome Kagan. "In the Beginning: The Contribution of Temperament to Personality Development." Modern Psychoanalysis, v 22, n 2, 1997; Jerome Kagan, Nancy Snidman, Doreen M. Arcus. "Initial Reactions to Unfamiliarity." Current Directions in Psychological Science. December, 1992.

Kagans Interesse am Vergleich zwischen asiatischen und amerikanischen Babies wurde durch das Werk von Daniel Freedman ausgelöst. Daniel G. Freedman. "Cross cultural differences in newborn behavior." [Film] University Park, PA: Psychological Cinema, Register, 1980, made 1974; Daniel G. Freedman. Human Sociobiology: A Holistic Approach. New York: The Free Press, 1979. Zu Kagans Überlegungen über die genetischen und im Temperament beruhenden Ursprünge der buddhistischen Wertschätzung von Gelassenheit gegenüber der christlichen Stress durch Schuld und Angst siehe: Jerome Kagan with the collaboration of Nancy Snidman, Doreen Arcus, and J. Steven Reznick. Galen's Prophecy: temperament in human nature. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1994

Jerome Kagan. Unstable Ideas: Temperament, Cognition and Self. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989: 84.

Alessandra Piontelli. From Fetus to Child: An Observational and Psychoanalytic Study. New York: Tavistock/Routledge, 1992.

Zu damit zusammenhängenden Informationen, wie Zwillinge dazu gezwungen werden, unterschiedliche Persönlichkeiten durch ihre Konkurrenz und ihre intensive emotionale Beziehung aufzubauen, siehe: R. Zazzo. "The twin condition and the couple effects on personality development." Acta geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae, 25, 1976: 343-52. R. Zazzo. "Genesis and peculiarities of the personality of twins." Progress in Clinical and Biological Research, 24A, 1978: 1-11.

Nach einer Untersuchung von 1172 Befruchtungen werden 51 Prozent als Zwillinge gezeugt, doch nur eine von 106 dieser Befruchtungen führt zur Geburt von zwei lebendigen Zwillingen. (E. Gerdts. "Ultrasonic diagnosis in abortion of one twin. The vanishing twin phenomenon." Tidsskrift For Den Norske Laegeforening. November 20, 1989: 3328-3329. Diese Zahlen stimmen überein mit denen von: H.J. Landy, S. Weiner, S.L. Corson, F.R. Batzer, R.J. Bolognese. "The 'vanishing twin': ultrasonographic assessment of fetal disappearance in the first trimester." American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, July 1986: 14-9.) Frühere, weniger genaue Messungen geben die "Rate des Verschwindens" gar mit 78 Prozent an. (H.J. Landy, L. Keith, D. Keith. "The vanishing twin." Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae, 31:3-4, 1982: 179-94.) Die meisten der verschwindenden Zwillinge werden im ersten Semester der Schwangerschaft vernichtet.

"Der Fötus kann heftig darum kämpfen, einen höheren Anteil der Versorgung durch die Mutter zu erhalten, während die Mutter ebenso stark versucht, eben dies zu verhindern." Dies ist einer der vielen Konflikte zwischen Mutter und Fötus, wie sie berichtet werden in: Randolph M. Nesse, M.D. and George C. Williams, Ph.D., Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine. New York: Random House, 1995: 197-199.

Alan G. Kraut and Sarah Brookhart. "Human Development: The Origins of Behavior." APS Observer, Special Issue: Basic Research in Psychological Science: A Human Capital Initiative Report. Washington, DC: American Psychological Society, February, 1998: 27-28.

P.D. Wadhwa, C. Dunkel-Schetter, A. Chicz-DeMet, M. Porto, C.A. Sandman. "Prenatal psychosocial factors and the neuroendocrine axis in human pregnancy." Psychosomatic Medicine, September-October 1996: 432-46; R.A. Anderson Jr. "Endocrine balance as a factor in the etiology of the fetal alcohol syndrome." Neurotoxicology and Teratology. Summer 1981: 89; S. Erisman, M. Carnes, L.K. Takahashi, S.J. Lent. "The effects of stress on plasma ACTH and corticosterone in young and aging pregnant rats and their fetuses." Life Sciences, 47:17, 1990: 1527-33; C.E. Hendrich, S.P. Porterfield. "Ribosomal protein synthesis in 16 and 19 day gestation fetuses of hypothyroid mothers." Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, December 1996:3 273-80; A.L. Fowden, M.J. Silver. "The effects of thyroid hormones on oxygen and glucose metabolism in the sheep fetus during late gestation." Journal of Physiology, 1 January 1995, (Pt 1): 203-13; W. Rohde, T. Ohkawa, F. Götz, F. Stahl, R. Tönjes, S. Takeshita, S. Arakawa, A. Kambegawa, K. Arai, S. Okinaga, et al. "Sex-specific effects on the fetal neuroendocrine system during acute stress in late pregnancy of rat and the influence of a simultaneous treatment by tyrosine." Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology and Diabetes, September 1989: 1-2, 23-42.

Ein Großteil der Forschung richtete sich darauf, wie Hormone im Uterus einen Mann verweiblichen oder eine Frau vermännlichen, wodurch die Entwicklung des Gehirns und anderer Bestandteile des zentralen Nervensystems beeinflußt werden. Diese beeinflussen dann wiederum solche Persönlichkeitsmerkmale wie Tapferkeit, Zurückhaltung, sexuelle Präferenz und viele andere. Dazu siehe: M.G. Forest. "Role of androgens in fetal and pubertal development." Hormone Research, 18:1-3 1983: 69-83; N. McConaghy, R. Zamir. "Sissiness, tomboyism, sex-role, sex identity and orientation." Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, June 1995: 278-83; F.M. Bentvelsen, M.J. McPhaul, J.D. Wilson, F.W. George. "The androgen receptor of the urogenital tract of the fetal rat is regulated by androgen." Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, October 1994: 21-6. Zu anderen Prozessen, durch die das Erleben der schwangeren Mutter die Persönlichkeit ihres Kindes verädnert, siehe: D. Hansen, H.C. Lou, M. Nordentoft, O.A. Pryds, J.R. Jensen, J. Nim, R.P. Hemmingsen. "The significance of psychosocial stress for pregnancy course and fetal development." Ugeskrift For Laeger, April 1996: 2369-72; A.S. Brown, E.S. Susser, S.P. Lin, R. Neugebauer, J.M. Gorman. "Increased risk of affective disorders in males after second trimester prenatal exposure to the Dutch hunger winter of 1944-45." British Journal of Psychiatry, May 1995: 601-6; M.O. Huttunen, P. Niskanen. "Prenatal loss of father and psychiatric disorders." Archives of General Psychiatry. April, 1978: 429-31

S.M. Resnick, I.I. Gottesman, M. McGue. "Sensation seeking in opposite-sex twins: an effect of prenatal hormones?" Behavior Genetics, July 1993: 323-9; J. Backon. "Etiology of alcoholism: relevance of prenatal hormonal influences on the brain, anomalous dominance, and neurochemical and pharmacological brain asymmetry." Medical Hypothesis, May 1989: 59-63; J. Money, D. Mathews. "Prenatal exposure to virilizing progestins: an adult follow-up study of twelve women." Archives of Sexual Behavior, February 1982: 73-83; S.A. Berenbaum, S.M. Resnick. "Early androgen effects on aggression in children and adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia." Psychoneuroendocrinology. October 1997: 505-15.

Ich verdanke William Tillier folgende Hinweise zu diesem Thema: Kazimierz Dabrowski. "Psychological basis of self mutilation." Translated by W. Thau. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 19, 1937: 1-104; Kazimierz Dabrowski, Psychoneurosis Is Not an Illness. London: Gryf Publications, 1972; A.C. Blackburn and D.B. Erickson. "Predictable crises of the gifted student." Journal of Counseling and Development, 64, 1986: 552-555; T.J. Bouchard, D.T. Lykken, M. McGue, N.L. Segal, and A. Tellegen. (1990). "Sources of human psychological differences: The Minnesota study of twins reared apart." Science, 250, 1990: 223-228; William James. On a certain blindness in human beings.What makes a life significant. New York: Henry Holt, 1899. R. Julien. A Primer of Drug Action. (8th ed.) New York: W. H. Freeman and Co, 1998.

Jerome Kagan. Unstable Ideas: Temperament, Cognition and Self: 87.

Als man eine gemischte Gruppe von Frauen aus der Arbeiterklasse und der Mittelschicht fragte, ob sie glauben, daß körperliche Zuwendung gut für Kleinkinder sei, antwortet fast alle mit Ja. Aber als die Forschen den Müttern Artikel gaben, die entweder für viel körperliche Zuwendung waren oder sagten, daß zuviel körperliche Zuwendung ein Kleinkind verwöhne, erinnerten sich die Mütter aus der Arbeiterklasse am besten an den Artikel, der behauptete, zuviel körperliche Zuwendung verwöhne das Kind. Die Mütter als der Mittelschicht erinnerten sich am deutlichsten an den Artikel, der körperliche Zuwendung anpries. (Jerome Kagan. Unstable Ideas: Temperament, Cognition and Self: 55-6.) Folgerung: obgleich die Mütter aus beiden Klassen glauben, daß sie körperliche Zuwendung wichtig finden, gehen die Mütter aus der Arbeiterklasse mit einem größeren Mißtrauen damit um.

Daniel Goleman. "New Research Overturns A Milestone of Infancy." New York Times, June 6, 1989: C-1, 14.

Diese Bescheibung stammt aus der Arbeit von Dr. Alan Dixson von der Cambridge University und von dem BBC-Produzenten Bernard Walton, die den Titel "Mask of the Mandrill" hatte (PBS, 6/12/98). Hinzufügungen und Klarstellungen durch Alan F. Dixson, persönliche Korrespondenz, 15.-17. Juni, 1998. Siehe auch: A.F. Dixson, T. Bossi, E.J. Wickings. "Male Dominance and Genetically Determined Reproductive Success in the Mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx)." Primates, October 1993: 525-532; A.F. Dixson. "Sexual and aggressive behaviour of adult male marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) castrated neonatally, prepubertally, or in adulthood." Physiology and Behavior, August 1993; E.J Wickings, T. Bossi, A.F. Dixson. "Reproductive success in the mandrill, Mandrillus sphinx: correlations of male dominance and mating success with paternity, as determined by DNA fingerprinting." Journal of Zoology: Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, December 1993; E.J. Wickings, A.F. Dixson. "Testicular function, secondary sexual development, and social status in male mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx)." Physiology and Behavior. November 1992: 909-916.

Jerome Kagan. The Power and Limitations of Parents. Austin, TX: Hogg Foundation for Mental Health, University of Texas, 1986

Jerome Kagan. Unstable Ideas: Temperament, Cognition and Self: 173.

Jerome Kagan. Unstable Ideas: Temperament, Cognition and Self: 126.

Jerome Kagan. Unstable Ideas: Temperament, Cognition and Self: 214-15. For similar conclusions, see: Kazimierz Dabrowski with Andrzej Kawczak and Michael M. Piechowski. Mental Growth Through Positive Disintegration. London: Gryf Publications, 1970.

David Freeman Hawke. John D. - the founding father of the Rockefellers. New York: Harper & Row, 1980.

Xenophon. Spartan Society. In Richard J.A. Talbert, translator. Plutarch on Sparta. New York: Penguin Books, 1988: 168.

Xenophon. Spartan Society. In Plutarch on Sparta: 170.