Language Futures of Europe
This site collects links on the language futures of Europe - on language policy, multilingualism, global language structures, and the dominance of English. It starts with a comment on the structures of language: then texts/essays, and sections on EU policy, national policies, and research sites. Finally there are links on the emerging "monolingual movement" in the United States. Revised 23 July 1997.
You can Paul Treanor mail comments on this: in English, auf Deutsch, en Francais, in Italiano, in het nederlands
Structure of languages
These sites show, that language policy ideals are often linked to geopolitical visions. Nationalists support national languages, regionalists in Europe support regional languages, supporters of a cosmopolitan ethic often hope for a universal language. (See Structures of Nationalism and its link site for more on these patterns). In Europe there is an emerging division:
- neo-Atlanticists support English as European language of contact
- defensive national language activists seek a limited multilingualism, of national languages
- regionalists and separatists want all languages to get equal status, with hundreds of official languages in Europe
- technological optimists believe full automatic translation will be available "soon", so the political issues will disappear
Two other positions have less impact:
- the older defensive linguistic nationalism (in one country only), has disappeared - at least in western Europe
- there is almost no support for a new artificial language, for an "interlanguage" (neo-Latin or neo-germanic), or a revival of Latin or Greek
It is possible to list 8 basic attitudes, influencing language policy:
- "the multiplicity of languages is an evil, and a source of conflict. It should be overcome by a universal language, or at least a global auxiliary language"
- "linguistic standardisation in modernity is inhuman and evil, like Newspeak in Orwell's "1984"
- "diversity of languages is a value in itself, similar to biodiversity"
- "each language has value in itself, and it should be preserved, perhaps like a work of art"
- "languages are essential to peoples and nations. Language is related to identity, culture, and memory. Language erosion is cultural genocide"
- "one specific language is superior to all others because it expresses truth, or value, or the Word of God. It should become universal, perhaps for religious purposes only"
- "one specific language is associated with a superior political philosophy, or social system. It should become the universal language"
- "a universal or near-universal language, which existed in the past, should be restored"
Language Europe - texts, articles, essays
Sprachliche Monokultur oder Sprachenvielfalt?
Europe's Babylon: towards a single European language
Die Lingua Franca des Netzes - Das Schicksal von Englisch als Weltsprache
The Lingua Franca of the Net - The fate of English as the global language
Cyber-English
Cyber-english has rapidly come to serve as a transmission belt for "free market" ideologies. Free expression and free exchange, in one view, inevitably will be furthered by common linguistic understanding...
Funny characters on the Net: how information technology may (or may not) support minority languages:
"Isn't one of the good things about Internet the strengthening of English as a world-wide communication language, with a monolingual world without language barriers and communication problems as the ultimate result?"
Cultural imperialism and the Internet, session notes, Harvard Conference on Internet and Society, 1996.
Jacques Atali: "The point is that language relates to ways of thinking and uniformity is not good." Online discussion
Virtual Sisterhood: Language plurality as barrier: "Join our effort to break down language barriers to Virtual Sisterhood."
Hedsor Memorandum on Europe and the Global Information Society:
"Clearly there will be European particulars - for instance the diversity of languages in Europe, the long cultural history of Europe: but we did not believe that the concept of a Europe distinct from the Global Information Society was viable."
G-7 Information Society Pilot Project - "Electronic commerce systems should be multilingual..."
Transferre non semper necesse est - "In which it is argued that there is too much translation in Europe ..."
On-line Translation Colloquium, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Facultat de Traduccio i d'Interpretacio
Translatio and comparative literature: the terror of European humanism
"Europe cannot ever be born out of translation, being itself nothing more than a figure for translation."
Notes on Cyborg Translators - a collection of examples from Science Fiction.
The invisible hands that control translation
Language engineering - a greater use of language in every sense
Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights
Languages in Cyberspace: E-Babel
Für ein vielsprachiges Europa
Making Europe Multilingual.
Appel d'Amsterdam
"...les projets économiques et monétaires pas plus que les constructions institutionnelles ne réussiront d'établir la paix en Europe tant que ne commencera pas à exister une Europe des peuples et des cultures qui, elle meme, ne sera possible que si se développe une Europe des langues." Seminaire: La diversité linguistique en Europe
Charta der Europäischen Identität, (Europa-Union):
"Die Unionsbürger müssen sich verständigen können"
Cxarto de la Euxropa identico, Esperanto.
Nuntius pro Lingua Latina
Epistulae ... quia pro certo habeo linguam Latinam multo melius quam alias linguas adiuvare posse populos Europaeos ad quandam communem radicem ac traditionem recuperandam.
Presentazione di un progetto di unificazione delle lingue neolatine
Appel du Comité européen pour le respect des cultures et des langues en Europe. "Pour une Europe humaniste, plurilingue et riche de sa diversité culturelle."
A committment to pluralism, World Commission on Culture and Development, a museal-preservative approach to multilingualism.
Enlightened policy towards minorites should preserve their languages, while providing them with the opportunity to enter into the larger community,
Minderheiten: Beispiel Gaeltacht in Irland "Falls man also die Erhaltung von kleineren Kulturen und Sprachen bejaht, den 67 Sprachgruppen in Europa eine größere schöpferische Kraft zutraut als einer Beton-Wohnsilo Einheitskultur, dann muß man Strategien suchen, das 'Ökosystem traditionalistische Minderheit' an die Modernität anzupassen und so auf einer anderen Stufe zu erhalten."
Model Declaration on University language policy
Modelverklaring Universitair Taalbeleid
European Sociological Association language policy, from Mailbase archive.
La francophonie face au défi des nouvelles technologies "Les stratégies en faveur du francais et des cultures francophones."
Survey of the State of the Art in Human Language Technology, Center for Spoken Language Understanding
Machine translation: the disappointing past and present, from Chapter 8, "Multilinguality"
Farewell to auxiliary languages, 1997, "Denunciation of artificial languages (of the international auxiliary type)"
Proposed Guidelines for the design of an optimal international auxiliary language, 1996
Artificial Language Lab
Bibliography of Planned Languages, excluding Esperanto. Very comprehensive: includes "Eurolengo, the language for Europe", published at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1972, "Wede, die Verständigungssprache der Zentralmächte" (Diessen 1915), and "Pan-Arisch" (Altona 1908).
Eurolang, "Comuna dua lang per la Europa Unized"
Latino Moderne: Le Summario de la Grammatica Sue
"Had Latin survived intact....how would it appear in its modern form and what would its function be in the modern world? It would undoubtedly be the perfect bridge language for a United Europe..."
Which language first? For a European Community experiment using Esperanto, summary only. Full text in Language Problems and Language Planning 19, 1 (1995) 26-46. (Renato Corsetti, Mauro La Torre).
Languages and the Media / Les Langues dans l'Audiovisuel / Sprachen en Medien - "How best can the media invest in Europe's multilingual future?"
Conference Languages "...it is not planned to offer interpretation for the conference sessions. This is deliberately a multilingual conference...we suggest that speakers use a language most of the audience will understand."Almost all used English.
Language and EU policy, documents
NOTE: EU programmes often overlap and compete, or even work against each other. Different Directorates-General may follow differing policies. For the structure, see The Directorates-General and Services of the European Commission.
Treaty of Maastricht on European Union, 1992, Article F.1 - "The Union shall respect the national identities of its Member States..."
Multilingualism on IM Europe. Including the official European Commission excuse for all the English-only web sites.
The Multilingual Information Society programme, Directorate-General XIII - Telecommunications, Information Market and Research
Det Flersprogede Informationssamfund
MLIS - Mitteilungen der Europäischen Kommission
MLIS - Communications from the European Commission
LA SOCIEDAD DE LA INFORMACION MULTILINGUE
DET FLERSPRAKIGA INFORMATIONSSAMHELLET
Communications de la Commission européenne
LA SOCIETA DELL'INFORMAZIONE MULTILINGUE
De Meertalige Informatiemaatschappij
A SOCIEDADE DA INFORMACIO MULTILINGUE
Language Engineering; harnessing the power of language: perhaps the most explicit hostility to multilingualism, in any EU document. Diversity of language is described as a barrier, to be destroyed by technology.
Language Engineering Programme of the Telematics Application Sector, Directorate-General XIII - Telecommunications, Information Market and Research. Der Sektor der Sprachtechnologie der Europäischen Gemeinschaft, Generaldirektion XIII
www2.echo.lu/langeng/fr/lehome.html Secteur Ingênierie Linguistique du Programme d'Applications Têlêmatiques, DG XIII
www.cordis.lu/esprit/home.html Esprit: the EU Information Technologies programme, Directorate-General III, Industry.
www.cordis.lu/esprit/src/eyeinfo.htm Cordis info on i3 interface project
ELSNET, European Language and Speech Technology Network, "to encourage the development of language technology in Europe."
Language Technology for ELSNET. Again, technology versus multilingualism: "...translation and localisation technology helps to reduce the barriers of a multilingual Europe."
European Network for Intelligent Information Interfaces: a long-term project on human-IT interface, apparently based on a single-language community in Europe. English-only web site: the i3 projects are in English, or local langauge plus English.
Project summaries
NOTE: Several i3 project consultants said they want a single language of contact in Europe, that it should be English, and that English was the inevitable global language. They also confirmed that their projects used English as first language.
SOCRATES, European Community Action Programme in Education, Directorate-General XXII, Education, Training,Youth. Incorporates earlier programmes, such as ERASMUS. One of the aims is "to promote improved use of European languages". In practice, the ERASMUS programme often subsidies English-language international courses.
Summary of SOCRATES projects
ERASMUS Programme for Higher Education
LINGUA, programme for promotion of language learning in Europe: one of the few explicitly multilingual EU programmes. Covers the official EU languages plus Irish, Letzoburgish, Icelandic and Norwegian. Tel*Lingua, Transcultural Education and Training: G7 Information and Society pilot project theme 3, Directorate-General XIII.
Feasibility Study Report
EURODICAUTOM Database: how they translate at Union Europea / Uniao Europeia / Union européenne / Europäische Union / Unione europea / European Union / Europese Unie / Den Europaeiske Union
Programma ARIANE: Proposta modificata di decisione del Parlamento europeo e del Consiglio, che istituisce un programma di sostegno al settore del libro e della lettura attraverso la traduzione.
European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages - "... to conserve and promote the regional, autochtonous languages and cultures of the European Union."
MERCATOR Project:
"...set up by the European Commission following the Kuijpers Resolution which was passed by the European Parliament on 30 October, 1987 (OJ C310) to promote the interests of the minority/regional languages and cultures within the European Union."
The MERCATOR Bulletin includes legal texts and resolutions, on language issues in the EU.
El programa MERCATOR
Le programme MERCATOR
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages:www.scania.org/ssf/human/0506lang.htm: from the Council of Europe, not the European Union.
Language: national policy
Language Industries Atlas, comprehensive list of national language institutes, translation industries associations, and research centres. Also part of the Multilingual Information Society programme.
MERCATOR linguistic law and legislation database, national law on language policy.
Construire une société de l'information plurilingue, Ministère de la Culture, France.
Assurer la visibilité et la promotion des contenus en Francais...sur Internet.
Cultuurnota 1997-2000, hoofdstuk taalbeleid, Minsterie van Onderwijs, Cultuur, en Wetenschappen, Nederland.
Sprachen und die Sprache, Ministerium für Bildung, Kultur und Wissenschaft (NL).
Languages and Language, Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (NL). Les Langues et la Langue:: www.minocw.nl/cnota/fr/hfdid05.htm, Ministère de l'Enseignement, de la Culture et des Sciences (NL).
Kervarker; a la langue bretonne
Instituto Cervantes, "la institución pública creada por Espana en 1991 para la promoción y la ensenanza de la lengua espanola".
Instituto da Lingua Galega: the recognition of regional languages in Spain leads to parallel regional language institutes, comparable to national language institutes.
Modern language learning in the new Europe - the European Centre for Modern Languages in Graz, Republik Österreich, Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Verkehr
Det skanska sprakets plats i Sverige, Stiftelsen Skansk Framtid.
The position of the Scanian language in Sweden - "Peoples all over Europe are mourning the loss of regional and local languages..." Scania - Skaneland
Sami languages and mass communication
Education in Hungarian language in Romania, Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania, Memorandum on Romania's admission to the Council of Europe.
Proposed Law on National Minorities and Autonomous Communities
History and status of the Welsh language
Welsh Language Act 1993, Summary Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg
Irish language and broadcasting:
"Should Irish language broadcasting be left to the mercy of market forces or should it be a function of Government to continue to intervene in the affairs of the language, now on the side of language rights?"
Green Paper on Broadcasting 1995, Department of Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht
Paipear Glas ar Chraolachan 1995, An Roinn Ealaaon, Cultuir; Gaeltacht
Gaillimh le Gaeilge, "...to add a further dimension to the city by cultivating the use of our language in its everyday life, thus making Galway the only bilingual city in the country."
an laethanach in Gaeilge: Gaillimh priomhchathair dhatheangach na tire.
Questions flamandes: Fourons - "La partie francophone de la village s'est groupée dans un mouvement politique, l'Action fouronnaise, ...ce mouvement plaide pour un retour á la province de Liège..."
Voeren - "Voeren is a Flemish enclave...the French-speaking group in the commune has formed a political movement, the Action Fouronnaise..."
Vlaamse Kwesties: Voeren
Auszug aus der Verfassung des Freistaates Sachsen das Sorbische Volk betreffend
Die Sorben / Wenden in Deutschland
History of the Sorbs / Wends in Germany
Constitutional provisions, Sachsen (Saxony) and Brandenburg.
Institut für Niederdeutsche Sprache
ECU-Millionen für Platt-Projekte?
Dialect Map of Slovenia, 153K
Language (policy) research, Institutions, Organisations
Human Languages Page, 1400 language-related links.
Search for Multilingual Ressources
The Language Policy Website. Most material is from the USA.
ETHNOLOGUE, over 6 700 languages with 39 000 names. The largest list. As the name implies, this kind of list is associated with a view of the world, as a collection of peoples / ethnic groups.
Terralingua - "...two main aims: preserving the world's linguistic diversity, and investigating connections between biological and cultural diversity."
Position Paper on biological/language diversity, with bibliography.
Cooperazione per la diverstità linguistica e biologica
Endangered Languages Project: Progress Repor, Comité International Permanent de Linguistes.
Mion-chànain na h-Eòrpa
European minority (or minoritized) languages
Links zu europäischen ethnischen Minderheiten (EU-Raum)
Re:Locations, Interdisciplinary Research Forum on Language, Linguistic Minorities and Identity
Yamada Language Guides, University of Oregon.
Languages and Linguistics, with a section on artificial languages (including the languages of Star Trek). More sites on artificial languages:
Interlinguistik im Internet
Constructed Human Languages
European Association for Machine Translation
English Language FAQ, frequently asked questions about the English language (British Council).
Institute for the Study of Language and Society homepage.
Current Issues in Language and Society: print journal, summaries only online.
Multilingualism on the Web - Resources: articles, links, organisations, texts on cultural imperialism.
4000-entry Mercator database on minority languages in education.
Policy making with regard to regional or minority languages, Fryske Akademy.
Speech and Language Technology Club.
SALT Euro-News, on EU-funded projects.
Web Internationalization and multilingualism
European Language Resources Association - "validation, management, and distribution of speech, text, and terminology resources and tools...within the European telematics R&TD community"
Association Européenne pour les Ressources Linguistiques
Observatorio Espanol de Industrias de la Lengua, (Instituto Cervantes)
English 2000 project, British Council.
Secrétariat à la politique linguistique, Gouvernement du Québec
Language Policy Research Centre, Israel
Language policy in South African education
Pan South African Language Board Act 1995
Contrast: monolingual USA
NOTE: There is a fundamental difference between the base of language policy in Europe, and in the United States. The vast majority in the US already speaks English, multilingualism is seen as an issue linked to immigration. In contrast, there is no majority language in Europe, and the plurality of languages is not the product of immigration. The US "English-Only" movement is comparable to older defensive linguistic movements in Europe. However it is sometimes linked to a belief, that English should be the single global language.
English First - "Working to make English America's official language" and "eliminate costly and ineffective multilingual policies."
Official English Bills introduced in the 105th Congress.
The English Only movement
"It's easy to understand the origins of the Tobacco Institute or the Peanut Advisory Council or the Valve Manufacturers Association. But how does a language acquire a multimillion-dollar advocacy group? Cui bono?"
ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/langleg.htm Language legislation in the USA.
U.S. English - "...dedicated to preserving the unifying role of the English language in the United States..."
Bilingual education - "This page is maintained by Immigration Control Advocates of Northern California."
Ebonics Topic Page, from The Linguist List, with links and discussion.
Official English? No!, TESOL, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
A brief history of language restrictionism in the United States
NCLIS -JNCL - "...all Americans must have the opportunity to learn and use English and at least one other language."
The Language Crusade: what's really behind the campaign for Official English?
ACLU opposes English Only laws, American Civil Liberties Union.
Linguaphobia, editorial, National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators.
Meanwhile in Canada, the Freedom Party of Ontario - "Official Bilingualism is Forced Bilingualism".